The African Buffalo: Conservation and Ecology

(Syncerus caffer)

10/02/2026

Samuel Clifford

An Introduction to the African Buffalo

The African Buffalo has one of the largest ranges of any African mammal and due to the extensively large range of human populations as well, there is a long history of interactions between the African Buffalo and Homo Sapiens. Some cultures view them as sources of knowledge that humans can learn from, figuratively. Others describe them as cruel and dangerous as they have been observed to urinate on the wounds of their adversaries to see if they are truly dead. If they are not, then the African Buffalo will continue to fight the adversary until the adversary dies. European hunters also view them as dangerous and place them as a part of the Big Five. The Big Five are considered the five most dangerous animals to hunt in Africa. The African Elephant, Lion, Leopard, and Black Rhinoceros are also on that list. 

 

It occurs throughout most of sub-Sahara and inhabits a wide range of ecosystems from savanna to rainforest. It exhibits morphological polymorphism (the occurrence of two or more distinct physical forms within the same species and population) in body size, weight, pelage color, and horn shape. The African Buffalo belongs to the bovid family which is characterized by the presence of two or rarely four unforked horns. 

African Buffalo v Water Buffalo

 

The Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is extremely similar to the African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer). So what justifies them being in two different genera? In the book “Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo” by Alexandre Caron, Daniel Cornélis, Philippe Chardonnet, and Herbert H. T. Prins they identify two fundamental characteristics:

 

  1. In Syncerus the vomer and the palate are not fused 
  2. The nuchal hair-stream is not reversed

 

To non-biologists, the vomer is a thin bone that forms part of the nasal septum and separates the left and right nasal passages. The palate is the bony roof of the mouth. In Syncerus caffer, the vomer remains separate from the palate. Meaning that if you looked at the bones there would be a gap between them. On the other hand, in Bubalus bubalis the vomer and palate are fused which creates a different assemblage of nasal passages and skull architecture. 

 

Furthermore, the nuchal region is on the back of the neck and a hair stream is simply the direction the hair naturally grows. In Syncerus caffer (the African buffalo), the hair on the back of the neck grows in the same direction as the rest of the body, flowing smoothly from the head toward the shoulders. In Bubalus (the water buffalo), the hair on the neck changes direction and forms a reversal or "cowlick," where hairs growing from opposite directions meet along the nape of the neck which creates a distinct line where they meet. 

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

Subspecies of Syncerus caffer

 

There are four to five subspecies attributed to Syncerus caffer and we will go over all five, and why it is sometimes disputed to be four, in the following paragraphs. For context, a subspecies is a distinct population within a species that is genetically different enough to have consistent genetic or physical differences, but not different enough to be considered a different species altogether. 

 

Subspecies 1: S. c. caffer

 

Syncerus caffer caffer is the nominate subspecies meaning it is the type specimen on which the species as a whole was described. Under zoological naming rules, this subspecies repeats the species name. The non-scientific name for this subspecies is the Cape Buffalo and this subspecies is the main subspecies this article will be focusing on. An individuals weight is usually between 935 to 1920 lbs. 

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

Subspecies 2: S. c. nanus

 

Syncerus caffer nanus, also known as the forest buffalo, is the smallest subspecies of African buffalo weighing 550-705 lbs. It is recognized by its distinctive reddish-brown coat. This species is the only subspecies that commonly occurs in the rainforests of Central and Western Africa. Their home ranges also consist of marshes and savannas as well. They typically graze in the savannas as their forests consist mostly of grasses and other plants. The shape and size of the horns of this subspecies are also different from the others as they have much smaller horns and rarely fuse together. 

 

Furthermore, the African forest buffalo also has smaller herds than Cape buffalo as Cape buffalo can have well over 1,000 individuals in a herd while African forest buffalo are seen with rarely over 30 individuals in a herd. Another difference between the Cape buffalo an African buffalo can be found with the herd dynamics concerning bulls.

In Cape buffalo herds, the bulls stay in bachelor herds until the wet season when they meet up with the females, mate, protect young, and then leave. The African forest buffalo, on the other hand, remains with the herd year round. Given all of the differences between the Cape buffalo and African forest buffalo some have even claimed it should be its own species (Syncerus nanus). Yet, genetics shows that intrinsically they are related to the nominate subspecies (Smitz et al., 2013).

 

Syncerus caffer nanus. iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/199289-Syncerus-caffer-nanus. Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

Subspecies 3: S. c. brachyceros

 

The Syncerus caffer brachyceros commonly goes by the Sudan buffalo or the West African savanna buffalo. It is larger than the Syncerus caffer nanus but still smaller than the Syncerus caffer caffer with a weight of around 881 to 1543 lbs. It occurs in the savanna regions of West Africa, from Senegal eastward through countries such as Guinea, Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Benin, Cameroon, and parts of the Central African Republic. It is adapted to open woodland and savanna habitats. 

Syncerus caffer brachyceros. iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/532816-Syncerus-caffer-brachyceros. Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

Subspecies 4: S. c. aequinoctialis

 

The Syncerus caffer aequinoctialis, also known as the Nile buffalo, is located in the savannas of Central Africa but further east than the Sudan buffalo in countries such as Chad, Ethiopia, Congo, Sudan, and South Sudan. It is lighter and smaller than the Cape buffalo but around the same size as the Sudan buffalo. 

 

Syncerus caffe brachyceros features horns that resemble those of domestic cattle. They sweep outward, backward, and slightly upward. The hard bony shield at the base (the "boss") is present but significantly less developed than a Cape buffalo's. On the other hand, Syncerus caffer aequentoctialis features horns that are morphologically intermediate between brachyceros and the classic southern Cape buffalo. They are generally a bit larger and show a slightly more pronounced downward dip and developed boss before sweeping up, leaning a fraction closer to the Cape buffalo's classic look.

 

Syncerus caffer brachyceros. iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/532816-Syncerus-caffer-brachyceros. Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

 

Subspecies 5: S. c. mathewsi 

 

Syncerus caffer mathewsi is the fifth subspecies and the most disputed of them all. It is often called the Virunga buffalo or Mountain buffalo. As the name suggests, it’s a mountain dwelling subspecies that lives in the mountainous regions in East and Central Africa, specifically around the Virunga Mountains spanning Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Syncerus caffer mathewsi is generally smaller in body size than the massive, heavy-set Syncerus caffer caffer. Additionally, the mountain-dwelling mathewsi often exhibits a coat coloration and horn structure that are intermediate between the dark savanna buffalo and the smaller, red forest buffalo.

 

The dispute over whether mathewsi is a valid or subspecies or not comes from varying view points. Some see the morphological differences in color, skull shape, and size and argue it should be in its own subspecies. Others, however, argue that genetic evidence does not support this classification. When researchers examined DNA from buffalo populations across Africa, they found that East African buffaloes and Southern African buffaloes share the same major genetic lineage. Meaning there is no clear genetic break separating "mathewsi" buffaloes from surrounding buffalo populations. Genes change gradually across geography rather than forming distinct groups. Therefore, in taxonomy, if a population is truly a separate subspecies, scientists often expect to find at least some corresponding genetic differentiation and Syncerus caffer mathewsi does not. 

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

Proposed Syncerus caffer umarii 

 

In the book “Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo” by Alexandre Caron, Daniel Cornélis, Philippe Chardonnet, and Hebert H. T. Prins, the authors state in chapter 8 that genetic and ecological research suggests the Nile buffalo (S. c. aequentoctialis) and the Sudan buffalo (S. c. brachyceros) are too closely related to be considered separate subspecies. They argue for both to be recognized as Syncerus caffer umarii named after the 14th-century Syrian geographer Ibn Fadl Allah al-Umari, who penned the oldest known written reference to the African buffalo in 1347 CE. Currently, not enough research has been conducted and published for it to be considered a valid species. 

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

Conservation Status of the African Buffalo

 

Historically the African Buffalo should be noted as one of the most successful animals of the African continent as its range extended across most of sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, the once great range of the African Buffalo has significantly diminished. Caron gives multiple reasons for this diminish:

 

  1. Rangeland Conversion

 

The colonization of Africa by Europe in the nineteenth century brought an expansion of livestock and a need for more agricultural land. This led to a competition for resources and space among the livestock and African Buffalo which led to diminishes in population as well as extinctions in certain local areas. Caron cites the country of Chad as one example of this were Central African savanna buffalo live. 

 

“The 19th Century African Land Grab: Colonialism’s Impact on Nations.” CompleteEra, https://completeera.com/the-19th-century-african-land-grab-colonialisms-impact-on-nations/. Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

 

East, Rod, compiler. African Antelope Database 1998. IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 1999, Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 21. IUCN, https://antelopesg.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/African-Antelope-Database-1998.pdf. Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

 

  1. Poaching

 

As stated in the introduction, the African Buffalo is considered a part of the “Big Five” group of African mammals that are dangerous for human hunting. Certainly this label has invited challengers and so poaching is now a huge problem for African Buffalo populations. 

 

“Buffalo Poached Inside Kruger Park.” TimesLIVE, 1 Sept. 2026, https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2026-09-01-buffalo-poached-inside-kruger-park/.Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

 

“Animals Fighting Back: Wounded Buffalo Kills Poacher in Kruger National Park.” The Citizen, 22 Oct. 2024, https://www.citizen.co.za/news/buffalo-kills-poacher-illegal-hunter-kruger-national-park/. Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

 

  1. Disease Outbreaks

 

When discussing the diminishing of African Buffalo populations, it will be difficult not to write about the rinderpest virus and the catastrophic event that was caused by it in the 1890s. Rinderpest spread across much of Africa and devastated both domestic livestock and wild ungulates, including African buffalo. It has historically been described as one of the most devastating epidemics in African history. The virus originated in Asia but was introduced into Africa through infected cattle that were imported to support Italian military operations in the Horn of Africa during the late 1880s. From there, it spread rapidly across the continent killing an innumerable amount of African Buffalo and other unulgates across the continent.

 

“Rinderpest.” World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), https://www.woah.org/en/disease/rinderpest/. Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

 

  1. Political Unrest

 

Wars, civil conflicts, and political instability, have caused powerless governments to lose the ability to patrol national parks and enforce anti-poaching laws. This unfortunate circumstance allows increased illegal hunting of buffalo for meat and trade which diminishes populations to this day. Angola is such an example as during the civil war (1975-2002) thousands of buffalo were slaughtered for food and since the 2000's widespread poaching has continued the decline.

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

 

  1. Climate Events (Droughts)

 

Droughts have caused African buffalo populations to decrease significantly because buffalo depend on abundant grass and regular access to water. One of the best-documented examples comes from the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem, where buffalo numbers crashed by 48.6% during the 1984-85 drought and 76.1% during the 1993-94 drought.

 

Dublin, Holly T., and Joseph O. Ogutu. “Population Regulation of African Buffalo in the Mara-Serengeti Ecosystem.” Wildlife Research, vol. 42, no. 5, 2015, pp. 382-393, https://doi.org/10.1071/WR14205.

 

The latest 10 year update of the African Buffalo labeled it as Near Threatened when it was formally labeled as Least Concern. This change is certainly nothing to take lightly and is one of the reasons for this article. Consider donating to the African Wildlife Foundation which works conserve the African Buffalo and many other native species:

https://www.awf.org/

Ecology of the African Buffalo

 

Habitat Use of the African Buffalo

 

As stated before, the African Buffalo inhabits most of the sub-Saharan Africa and as such it is able to live in many different environments. They are known to inhabit grasslands, woodlands, rainforests, deciduous forests, savannas, etc. According to Rod East they are not located in deserts and subdeserts and are only found in places within 20km-40km of permanent water. The capacity of savanna ecosystems for Buffalo populations are also positively correlated with mean annual rainfall and soil quality.

 

“The 19th Century African Land Grab: Colonialism’s Impact on Nations.” CompleteEra, https://completeera.com/the-19th-century-african-land-grab-colonialisms-impact-on-nations/. Accessed 27 Sept. 2026.

 

Caron, Alexandre, et al., editors. Ecology and Management of the African Buffalo. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

 

Habitat of the Savanna Buffalo (Cape Buffalo, Sudan Buffalo, Nile Buffalo)

 

Savanna buffalo are found in habitats with a high content of herbaceous biomass (non-woody plants). Types of woodland suitable for the Cape Buffalo include:

 

  1. Mopane

 

Mopane woodlands are dominated by mopane trees (Colophospermum mopane) (See image to the right). They are found in hot, semi-arid regions of southern Africa such as Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Mozambique, and northern South Africa. African Buffalo use mopane woodlands mainly during the wet season when grasses growing beneath the trees are abundant. These areas can therefore  support the large herds of Cape Buffalo where permanent water sources are nearby. Mopane leaves are also browsed occasionally, though buffalo are primarily grazers.

  1. Miombo (See image to the right)

 

The Miombo woodlands are dominated by trees in the genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia. This woodland covers vast areas of Zambia, Tanzania, Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is characterized by a relatively open canopy with a strong grass layer underneath. Furthermore, it provides extensive grazing habitat and seasonal forage. Buffalo populations in miombo regions often move long distances between grazing areas and water sources.

  1. Acacia (Image to the right)

 

The Acacia woodland consists of Acacia species (many now classified under Vachellia and Senegalia). It is common in East African savannas such as the Serengeti and parts of Kenya and Tanzania. It often supports some of the highest buffalo densities in Africa because of the high density of nutrients in the soil. Scattered trees provide shade while maintaining open areas for grazing and predator detection.

  1. Baikiaea (Image to the right)

 

Thus woodland is dominated by Baikiaea plurijuga (Zambezi teak). It is found mainly in the countries of Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe on deep Kalahari sands. It is generally less fertile than acacia woodlands but still supports buffalo where sufficient grass and water occur. African Buffalo tend to use these woodlands seasonally, moving between teak woodlands and adjacent grasslands.



Suitable Sahelian shrub savannas for the buffalo of West and Central Africa include Combretum, Terminalia, and Acacia species. These vegetation communities provide a combination of grazing resources, shade, and cover, enabling buffalo populations in West and Central Africa to survive in seasonally dry environments. Among these, Acacia savannas are often particularly valuable because they support nutrient-rich grasses favored by buffalo.

 

Suitable Sudanian woodlands include:

  1. Isoberlina doka (Image to the left)

 

These woodlands are dominated by Isoberlina doka, a hardwood tree native to African tropical savannas. They form relatively open woodlands with a well-developed grass understory. This woodland provides abundant grazing during the rainy season, making it a valuable habitat for buffalo. Buffalo use them for feeding, shade, and movement between water sources.

 

  1. Daniellia oliveri (image to the right) 

 

This woodland is dominated by Daniellia oliveri, a widespread tree found from Senegal to Uganda. It creates open woodland and wooded savanna habitats with scattered large trees. Furthermore it also supports a diverse grass layer that serves as an important food source for buffalo. The broad crowns of Daniellia trees provide shade during the hottest parts of the day. It frequently occurs in protected areas supporting West African buffalo populations.

  1. Burkea africana (Image to the right)

This woodland is dominated by Burkea africana, a drought-tolerant tree common on sandy, nutrient-poor soils. It is found throughout the Sudanian and southern savanna regions of Africa. Typically it forms open woodlands mixed with grasses and shrubs. Although less productive than some other woodland types, it can support buffalo where seasonal grasses and water are available. It often serves as part of a larger habitat mosaic used by buffalo throughout the year.

Habitat of the Forest Buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus)

 

Forest Buffalo inhabit rainforests with grassy forest clearings and are largely absent in areas with continuous forests. Research in 2002 found a population abundance of Forest Buffalo in non-closed canopy forest, which suggests that closed canopy forests are unsuitable for the Forest Buffalo. Furthermore, no signs of the Forest Buffalo were found 500 m from clearings such as logging roads. It was recorded in Cameroon that they would go no farther than 300 m from logging roads. 

 

Home Range Ecology of the African Buffalo

 

African Buffalo are considered to be sedentary species, not in the sense of barnacle or coral where they are fixed in a certain place, but instead this term is being used to describe the limited geographical space the African Buffalo travels. Their home range (the area traversed by an individual or group in its normal activities of food gathering, caring for young, drinking, mating, etc) is limited and they are not a migratory species. The African Buffalo’s home range size and movements are related to the spatiotemporal distribution of key resources. 

 

Savanna Buffalo Home Range

 

The home range of Savanna African Buffalo generally ranges between 50 and 350 km2. The largest HRs are observed in areas where resources are spatially segregated and therefore herds must undertake seasonal movements. Bachelor groups have smaller home ranges. Seasonal climate differences can also increase and decrease the home ranges as rainy seasons make water and foliage more abundant which decreases the home range while drier seasons decrease the water and foliage and increase the home ranges. Furthermore, seasonal movements may occur due to climate and home ranges may change. 

 

Forest Buffalo Home Range

 

Little is known about the home ranges of Forest Buffalo due to their elusive nature. Melletti, Penteriani, Mirabile, and Boitani (2007) report an home range of 8km2 for a herd of 24 buffalo. Space use of a home range varies with the season as forest buffalo prefer marshes during the wet season.

 

Activity Patterns of the African Buffalo

 

Savanna Buffalo Activity Patterns

 

Savanna Buffalo’s have varying distances in which they move per day as some were reported as moving 4km in some regions and 6km in other regions. Yet, the consensus as of now is that the proximity of both food and water influence movements, although bachelor males move much less than herds. They spend a large portion of their time feeding but also allocate time to ruminating. A ruminant is an animal that digests plant material through a specialized multi-chambered stomach. These animals regurgitate partially digested food, called cud, bring it back into their mouths, chew it again, and then swallow it for further digestion. The total time of feeding and ruminating is around 70-80 percent. According to observers, African Buffalo’s graze most often in the early morning and late afternoon, and during the first half of the night. This suggests that they avoid feeding during the hottest part of the day and during the coolest part of the day for thermoregulation purposes. At the hottest part of the day herds often seek shade and males generally wallow for thermoregulation. African Buffalo’s sweat profusely and the water content of their feces is around 80 percent. They have to drink at least every two days and it must be 45 litres daily. They are unable to survive on the moisture content of their food so they are restricted to flood plains and permanent surface water.

 

Forest Buffalo Activity Patterns

 

Once again, the known activity patterns of Forest Buffalo are limited. A study of a single Forest Buffalo herd showed that daily distances travelled by buffalo were generally short (around 500-1500 m). They are also known to wallow in the late afternoon but they spend more time in wallows during the day.

 

Feeding Ecology of the African Buffalo

 

As stated before, Buffalos are ruminants as they feed on grass and foliage. They are a bulk grazer as they ingest around 2.2 percent of their body mass daily (6.5 kg for a 300 kg Forest Buffalo, 11 kg for a 500 kg West or Central African Buffalo, and 15kg for a 700 kg Cape Buffalo).The adapted dentition and mobile tongue of the African Buffalo make for them to be efficient grazers as they can ingest high quantities of grass in a short amount of time. They cannot cut the pastures shorter than some other species which makes them fulfill an ecological niche as they open up habitats that are preferred by short-grass grazers. Competitively, they compete with Cattle (Bos taurus), African Elephants (Loxodonta africana), plains Zebra (Equus quagga), and wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). 

 

Social Dynamics of the Cape Buffalo

 

As stated earlier, the different subspecies of African Buffalo have various sizes of herds. Cape Buffalo have been observed with herds well over 1,000 individuals while Forest Buffalo rarely have more than 30. The herd composition of the African Buffalo contains all sex and age classes. Although, younger males force older males out of the herd into solitary groups (also known as bachelor groups). Recently an extraordinary study of Cape buffalo in South Africa revealed behavior that closely resembles democratic decision-making. Researchers observed that when a herd needed to determine its next direction of travel, female buffalo would stand, face a particular direction for several minutes, and then lie down again. This interesting behavior, described by the researchers as “voting,” allowed individual animals to express preferred travel routes. The direction receiving the greatest number of gazes ultimately became the path the herd followed. These findings have challenged the long-held assumption that herd movements in African Buffalo and other large bovids are dictated primarily by dominant individuals. Instead, the study suggests that collective decisions emerge from the input of many members of the herd. By incorporating the preferences and knowledge of numerous individuals, this democratic process may help buffalo herds make more effective navigation decisions across their daily movements and seasonal migrations.

 

African Buffalo herds maintain coordinated movement through local alignment, with each animal adjusting its direction to match nearby neighbors. As a result, directional changes spread through the group like a wave, allowing thousands of individuals to turn almost simultaneously. What appears to be a carefully choreographed motion is actually the rapid transmission of movement cues from one animal to the next. Interestingly, predator detection follows a similar pattern. When animals at the edge of the herd become alarmed, their alert behavior is quickly copied by nearby individuals, triggering a chain reaction that spreads across the entire group. This ripple of vigilance can travel through the herd in moments, enabling animals far from the threat to respond before the predator has advanced very far. The herd therefore functions as a highly sensitive collective detection system, greatly enhancing survival. Concerning calves,  they are moved to the centre of the herd when a threat is detected; they are surrounded by adult bodies on all sides. 

 

“African Buffalo Herd Behaviour: How 1000 Animals Move as One.” Uganda Gorilla Trekking, Uganda Gorilla Trekking, https://www.ugandagorillatrekking.org/wildlife-beyond-gorillas/african-buffalo-herd-behaviour-how-1000-animals-move-as-one/. Accessed 2 Oct. 2026.